Glossary

People who are ages 25 to 49.

AFDC, the predecessor to TANF, was a federal assistance program in effect from 1935 to 1996 that provided financial assistance to families with children and no or low incomes. States set their own benefit levels, established (within federal limitations) standards for eligibility based on income and resources, and administered the program with federal and state funding. During the 1990s, many states received waivers of the federal requirements from the federal government in order to experiment with changes to the eligibility requirements and benefits.

Structured on-the-job training consisting of three primary elements: (1) mentorship from a professional in the field; (2) participation in pre-determined hours of classroom instruction in addition to on-the-job training; and (3) culmination in an industry-recognized credential. Apprenticeships may be federally registered or non-registered.

People who graduated from high school or passed a high school equivalency exam such as the General Educational Development test (GED) or high school equivalency test (HiSET).

After individuals in a study are randomly assigned to the group receiving the program (the program group) or the group not receiving the program (the comparison group), they might drop out of a program or the study team might lose contact with them. This means information about how they fare over time is no longer available for use in the study. This dropping out is called attrition. The proportion of people who drop out of a study is called the attrition rate. There are two different types of attrition that matter when deciding whether a study’s findings can be considered reliable. The first type is overall attrition, which captures the percentage of individuals missing from the original sample. The second type is differential attrition which captures the difference between the percentage of individuals missing from the program group and the percentage missing from the comparison group. When either the overall attrition or the differential attrition is too high, the study results might not accurately capture the effects of the program. We use scientific standards to determine when either of these types of attrition is too high for a study’s findings to be considered reliable.

A study’s ability to demonstrate that the group receiving the program (the program group) and the group not receiving the program (the comparison group) are similar to each other before the program group begins receiving services is a key factor for determining the reliability of a study’s findings. Demonstrating that the two groups are similar according to important characteristics (such as earnings at least one year before baseline, socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity, sex, and age) is called demonstrating baseline equivalence. We assess studies for how well they are able to show that the program and comparison groups are largely similar across these key characteristics at baseline and, if differences exist, how they have accounted for those differences in their analysis.

Adult Basic Education (ABE), high school equivalency preparation (for the General Educational Development [GED] or high school equivalency test [HiSET]), or pre-college education courses designed for those not currently enrolled in school who need assistance obtaining basic skills in mathematics, reading, and writing. These can include developmental education courses for students preparing for postsecondary coursework.

We did not find any studies of moderate or high quality that studied the program’s effect on a given outcome. These programs require further study to support conclusions about their effectiveness.

Provision of direct, ongoing support to program participants before, during, or after employment or training. Case management may involve assessing participants’ needs, connecting participants to services (including public benefits), coordination of service referrals, helping participants meet program requirements, and providing personalized, sustained assistance.

People served by public benefits programs or initiatives that provide a direct payment of cash, including TANF.

Payments designed to provide participants with an income or strategies to help participants retain their income.

Child support provides monetary payments made by a non-custodial parent to the custodial parent to supplement the financial costs of raising the child. Child support assistance may include supporting custodial parents with applying for child support; providing education about child support to noncustodial parents; working with the child support program or the custodial parent to modify child support orders; providing assistance to consolidate petitions on multiple child support cases; and/or helping to reduce penalties for arrears.

Direct program assistance, including Head Start and Early Head Start programs or other early childhood programs, as well as cash or vouchers that assist in the education or care of children (e.g., childcare vouchers provided by TANF).

A group with characteristics ideally similar to those of program group members, except that those in the comparison group do not have an opportunity to receive the services of interest. The comparison group is intended to represent what would have happened to members of the program group if they had not been offered the services from the program of interest.

A factor that might affect how well a program works and that applies differently to the program and comparison groups. Because this factor can affect one group and not the other, the presence of a confounding factor causes us to question a study’s findings. One type of confounding factor is an element external to the program that reaches only the members of one study group—for instance, if all members of the program group lived in one state and all members of the comparison group lived in another state. In this case, it would be impossible to separate the effect of the program or policy from that of local economic conditions.

A systematic method for identifying and documenting the quantity, quality, and economic value, as represented by opportunity costs, of all resources such as personnel, materials, equipment, and facilities used to implement and operate a program. The analysis often categorizes costs according to resource type, program component, and implementation phase, and investigates the sensitivity of cost estimates by varying key assumptions.

A type of cost study that compares the present discounted monetary values of program costs and outcomes (also referred to as benefit-cost analysis).

A comparative analysis in which two or more alternative means of obtaining the same objective are assessed based on their costs per unit of effectiveness. Because CEA is comparative, a program can be considered cost-effective only relative to something else.

Programs whose effectiveness has not yet been rigorously evaluated but for which research studying their effectiveness is underway. The studies of these programs are presented on the Pathways to Work website in the “Studies Underway” section.

A physical or mental condition—including some chronic illnesses—that substantially limit one or more major life activities (i.e., activities that most people can perform with little to no difficulty such as seeing, hearing, and learning).

Diversion payments are one-time or short-term cash benefit payments that families receive to meet immediate needs, often (but not always) prior to enrollment in TANF or other assistance. These payments are designed to divert families from long-term enrollment in TANF or other services by addressing a specific crisis or episode of need.

Services designed to provide assistance to people who have experienced domestic violence. These services may include crisis program; counseling; advocacy with medical, police, and court systems; or prevention trainings. Some domestic violence services may include other supports such as housing.

Earned income disregards or earned income disallowances allow participants who receive means-tested government benefits to accept jobs and increase their earnings without facing immediate penalty or reduction in their benefits amount received. Benefits may be reduced after a pre-determined time period, such as 6 or 12 months.

The amount earned through paid employment.

Attainment of a degree or credential.

Programs designed to advance educational attainment or build occupational skills and experience needed to enter an occupational field. Education and training outcomes involve the attainment of a degree or credential.

The highest level of education or training completed by a person.

A standardized measure of the magnitude of the impact of the program, which is the difference in outcomes between the program group and the comparison group. The effect size is calculated by dividing the impact shown in the study by the standard deviation for that measure. Effect sizes facilitate comparisons across different outcomes, settings, and programs. This helps us make direct and meaningful comparisons so users can compare, for example, an impact of 10 percent on employment rates with an impact of $1,200 on annual earnings, as well as to the average of these two effects across programs.

The assessment of the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse, based on the existing evidence from impact studies, of the extent to which a given program improves a specific type of outcome. The effectiveness rating indicates whether the program is likely to produce favorable results if faithfully replicated with a similar population. After we review research on a program, we assign effectiveness ratings to indicate how effective the program is at improving each of four types of outcomes: employment, earnings, public benefit receipt, and education and training. The ratings depend on (1) the quality of the impact study or studies conducted of the program and (2) the favorability (or lack thereof), statistical significance, and consistency of the study findings for that type of outcome.

•  Well-supported. We have strong and consistent evidence that the program produces favorable results for a specific outcome, such as short-term earnings. Well-supported programs have at least two impact studies of moderate or high quality that show evidence of statistically significant and favorable findings within the outcome.
•  Supported. We have some evidence that the program produces favorable results for a given outcome. Supported programs have at least one study of moderate or high quality that shows evidence of statistically significant and favorable findings within the outcome, but the evidence is less conclusive than that for well-supported programs.
•  Not supported. We have evidence from impact studies of moderate or high quality that the program is unlikely to improve a given outcome. Studies of these programs have found only a pattern of null and/or unfavorable findings.
•  Mixed support. We have some evidence from impact studies of moderate or high quality that indicates the program improves a given outcome, and some evidence that indicates it worsens that outcome.
•  Insufficient evidence to assess support. We have evidence from a single impact study of moderate or high quality that studied the program’s effect on a given outcome, but the effect was not statistically significant.
•  Cannot assess support. We did not find any studies of moderate or high quality that studied the program’s effect on a given outcome. These programs require further study to support conclusions about their effectiveness.

People who have a paid job from an employer or who are self-employed—either full-time or part-time.

Services provided at the place of employment or by the employer to participants while they are working to support employment retention and career goal achievement. Services include program staff working with employers to identify additional training needed for participants to achieve competency in assigned work tasks or helping participants access retention strategies offered by the employer, such as workplace mentoring or work-life balance services.

A measure of work status, duration, or consistency of work.

Ongoing collaborative assistance with setting and pursuing goals related to employment. Coaching typically is a participant-led process that involves identifying and addressing employment barriers, building motivation, and working towards self-defined employment goals.

Services designed to support participants who already have a job.

The legal status of a person’s relationship with an employer, if any.

Services to help participants make informed decisions about their financial resources, such as providing information on budgeting or loans. These services may also be referred to as financial literacy or financial training.

A finding summarizes the effect of a program on an outcome measure related to employment, earnings, public benefit receipt, and education and training. It is the smallest element we review and to which we give a study quality by finding rating. The direction of the finding might be favorable or unfavorable. We also categorize whether it is statistically significant (unlikely to have occurred by chance) and small or moderate-to-large.

• Favorable. An impact on an outcome or an overall outcome domain in a direction that is socially desirable. For example, a favorable impact could be an increase in annual earnings or consecutive months of employment, or a reduction in months of TANF eligibility.
• Unfavorable. An impact on an outcome or an overall outcome domain in a direction that is not socially desirable. For example, an unfavorable impact could be a decrease in annual earnings or consecutive months of employment, or an increase in months of TANF eligibility.
• Moderate-to-large. We describe findings as being moderate-to-large if the program produced a sufficiently large change in the outcome. The change can be in a favorable or unfavorable direction. An impact receives this designation if the standardized effect size is equal to or greater than 0.25 or less than -0.25.
• Small. We describe findings as being small if the program did not produce a large change in the outcome. The change can be in a favorable or unfavorable direction. An impact receives this designation if the standardized effect size is between -0.25 and 0.25.

Costs that do not depend on the number of participants (e.g., a program manager may spend 5% of their time supervising a program regardless of the number of participants).

Services to support the physical, behavioral, or mental health of participants.

The quality of the study is high, meaning we can be fairly confident in the study findings. The study finding is likely to be attributable to the program examined. This rating is reserved for findings from high quality randomized controlled trials with low attrition of sample members.

The condition of lacking an adequate, fixed, and regular residence. This can include living in emergency shelters or transitional housing.

Services to help participants find, secure, and maintain safe housing, including housing search assistance and money or vouchers to cover rent and other housing costs. Housing search assistance and rental assistance payments may be provided by government or other entities, such as community-based organizations.

Occupational training designed in collaboration with employers and offered to existing employees to help with upskilling, reskilling, and retention during equipment or process changes. This training is designed to keep pace with industry changes and reduce costs associated with hiring new workers. May take place at work or at an off-site location, such as a training provider.

We have evidence from a single impact study of moderate or high quality that studied the program’s effect on a given outcome, but the effect was not statistically significant.

Contextualized Adult Basic Education (ABE) and/or English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction that prepares learners to succeed in specific occupational training classes and contexts. Courses may be completed prior to enrollment in occupational skills training or may co-occur with that training.

Activities related to program staff working with employers to identify existing or prospective job openings. Staff may work with employers to modify job postings to more closely align with needed or required skills, contact employers to probe about desired employee traits, call or visit employers to inquire about the status of current openings, or prime employers to accept applications from participants.

Activities to connect participants to employer job openings. This can include meeting with employers to identify appropriate positions that match program participants' skills and routing qualified program participants to these employers' job openings.

Services designed to help prepare participants for job search and prospective employment, including assessments to identify employment barriers, assessments of skills and career interests, and developing an individual employment plan or employment goals.

Activities that help participants prepare for, search for, and be placed in jobs. Activities can involve both program participants and employers.

Assistance helping participants identify potential sectors, occupations, employers, and jobs. Includes helping participants prepare applications, resumes, and cover letters; prepare for interviews; and debriefing after an interview or rejection of an application.

Contact with the justice system, including the condition of being in or having been in prison, jail, or a youth correctional facility; awaiting trial; or being on probation, parole, or supervised release.

Free or low-cost services to help address legal barriers to employment, including those related to past or current involvement with the justice system.

People who did not complete high school or pass a high school equivalency exam.

For the purposes of reviews conducted by Pathways to Work, long-term is defined as a period lasting between 18 months and 5 years after participants are first offered services.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment between 18 months and 5 years after the participant first received program services.

An increase in the rate of employment between 18 months and 5 years after the participant first received program services.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits or the value of their benefits between 18 months and 5 years after participants are offered program services.

The quality of the study is low, meaning we cannot have much confidence in the study findings. Factors other than the program examined could have influenced the study findings, and the study did not account for those factors. Study findings that do not meet the high or moderate ratings criteria receive the low rating.

A single piece of published or unpublished research, such as a journal article, working paper, book chapter, or research report. Studies might contain multiple manuscripts, and manuscripts might contain multiple studies. See the Protocol for the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse for more information.

A condition or conditions that affect a person’s thoughts, feelings, mood, or behaviors. Mental health conditions that may be considered employment barriers include depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, or personality disorders.

Inpatient or outpatient services to support or treat participants for mental health diagnoses. Services may include referrals for assessment, medication, counseling, or residential treatment.

A person who served on active duty in the U.S. armed forces and was discharged or released under a condition other than "dishonorable."

We have some evidence from impact studies of moderate or high quality that indicates the program improves a given outcome, and some evidence that indicates it worsens that outcome.

A model refers to a clearly defined and recognized bundle of services and policies or framework for service delivery. A model may be adapted when implemented in a specific context.

The quality of the study is moderate, meaning we can be somewhat confident in the study findings. However, factors other than the program examined could have influenced the study findings, and the study might not have fully accounted for those factors. We assign this rating to findings from randomized controlled trial studies that, because of flaws in the study (for example, high sample attrition), do not meet the criteria for the high rating but satisfy other design criteria. We also assign the moderate rating to study findings from well-executed quasi-experimental design studies.

A parent who does not have primary care, custody, or control of their child, and who may have an obligation to pay child support.

We have evidence from impact studies of moderate or high quality that the program is unlikely to improve a given outcome. Studies of these programs have found only a pattern of null and/or unfavorable findings.

Training associated with the development of skills needed in a particular occupation, industry, or sector. May culminate in receipt of an industry-recognized certificate, licensure, or credential.

People who are ages 50 or older.

A form of occupational training in which pre-determined occupational skills are learned while working on the job. This typically involves an agreement between a provider and an employer that subsidizes all or part of the participant’s wages. Participants work for an approved employer in an approved occupation to learn specific skills over a set period of time. Employers may choose to hire the participant without the wage subsidy at the end of their training.

A group of related outcomes. Pathways to Work includes the outcome domains: short-term earnings, long-term earnings, very long-term earnings, short-term employment, long-term employment, very long-term employment, short-term public benefit receipt (such as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program), long-term public benefit receipt, very long-term public benefit receipt, and education and training (which focuses on attaining a degree or credential).

The probability that if there actually was no real effect of the program, a finding at least as large as the observed finding would have been obtained by chance. For example, a sample might show a positive average difference, suggesting that the program group has better outcomes than the comparison group, with a p-value of 0.05. The p-value means that there is a 5 percent chance that the positive finding for the program group occurred by chance and does not occur in the population.

Short-term, paid work experience designed by employers to orient participants to occupations within an industry, receive mentorship, and gain exposure to workplace culture. Internships may vary in length and are sometimes associated with young adults but are provided to other populations as well. Wages are paid by the employer.

An adult caregiver responsible for raising a child; can be a biological, adoptive, or step-parent.

Strategies that allow participants or former participants to give and receive help from one another. These strategies often connect participants with similar challenges to provide support in a non-clinical, non-hierarchical relationship.

Payments that participants receive for engaging in a specific activity or achieving a certain goal. These payments may also be used to incentivize continued program participation.

Personalized assistance provided by a staff person—such as a case manager, counselor, coach, navigator, or employment specialist—or another program participant who helps assess needs, refers or directly provides services to participants, and helps participants remain in compliance with program requirements (if appropriate). Although assistance is typically delivered one-on-one, it can be delivered in group settings as well.

The point of view taken when defining costs and benefits included in a study. Common perspectives taken include:

• Participants’ perspective: Includes only the costs and benefits borne by program participants and sometimes their families (e.g., the opportunity costs of time for students attending a workforce training program, who could otherwise be in the workforce).
• Program provider perspective: The subset of costs that accrue to the organization implementing a program. Sometimes this is referred to as “program costs.”
• Societal perspective: Takes into account the opportunity costs of all resources required to implement and operate a program, regardless of who pays for or contributes the resources. This perspective also accounts for program benefits to all stakeholders.

Services to support the physical health of participants. Services may include referrals to medical providers, community clinics, or medical debt relief programs or benefits.

Ongoing support provided directly to participants by program staff after a participant is employed to help them navigate issues or difficulties arising at work, manage barriers to their continued success, assess progress towards goals, or monitor job attendance.

Training designed to prepare participants to enter registered apprenticeship programs.

A program’s primary service is the principal service of the program. The primary service is (1) a component that a large proportion of program group members received and a large proportion of comparison group members did not receive, and (2) the component that was described by the study authors as most integral to the theory of change tested by the study. Programs may provide multiple services, but only one service is designated as primary.

A specific bundle of services or policies implemented in a given context. For the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse, programs are defined based on the services offered to the program group but not offered to the comparison group.

Percentage of people receiving public benefits (such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) or the value of the benefits they receive.

People served by government programs that provide financial support and services to people with low incomes. These programs include TANF, SNAP, WIC, Medicaid, and subsidized or public housing.

A design in which the program and comparison groups are created through a process that is not random. For a QED to be rigorous, the program and comparison groups must have been comparable on predetermined characteristics at the start of the study. At best, strong QEDs will receive a moderate rating in the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse.

A design in which researchers randomly assign study participants to a group that receives the program services or a group that does not. RCTs are considered to produce the strongest possible evidence of effectiveness because random assignment ensures that no systematic differences existed between the study groups before the program.

Pathways to Work describes studies as having been conducted in rural only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in a rural location or in multiple locations, all of which were rural. This typically means that they were conducted in communities with low population density, such as small towns, that typically include large tracts of undeveloped land. Programs are listed as having been tested in rural only settings if at least one study of the program was in a rural only setting.

An analysis varying the assumptions or parameter values used in the primary analysis to determine sensitivity or robustness of results to those assumptions.

For the purposes of reviews conducted by Pathways to Work, short-term is a period lasting 18 months or fewer after participants are first offered services.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received program services.

An increase in the rate of employment during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received program services.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits (such as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, and so on) or the value of their benefits during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received program services.

A parent raising a child or children without a spouse or partner in the household.

A person who is legally required to meet work requirements of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) to receive benefits. Generally, these individuals are ages 16 to 59 and able to work.

Training in skills such as punctuality, professional communications and conduct, professional dress, and conflict management.

Characteristics or conditions that can introduce difficulties for a person to find, obtain, and/or keep a job.

A standardized measure of the magnitude of the impact of the program, which is the difference in outcomes between the program group and the comparison group. The effect size is calculated by dividing the impact shown in the study by the standard deviation for that measure. Effect sizes facilitate comparisons across different outcomes, settings, and programs. This helps us make direct and meaningful comparisons so users can compare, for example, an impact of 10 percent on employment rates with an impact of $1,200 on annual earnings, as well as to the average of these two effects across programs.

Pathways to Work considers statistical significance to be support for the existence of an effect of a program. Pathway to Work considers an effect statistically significant if the p-value of a two-sided hypothesis test of whether the effect is equal to zero is less than 0.05.  A p-value is the probability of observing an effect estimate as large or larger than the one observed, if there were no actual effect.

Financial support for time commitments associated with program activities to enable continued participation (e.g., support to accommodate reduced work hours or increased childcare hours due to training programs or meetings with program staff).

Programs whose effectiveness has not yet been rigorously evaluated but for which research studying their effectiveness is underway. The studies of these programs are presented on the Pathways to Work website in the “Studies Underway” section.

An analysis of a distinct implementation of a program.

Studies vary in terms of their quality, or rigor. This variability in quality can result either from the way a study was designed or the way it was executed. Study quality affects the confidence we can have in the study’s findings. Three possible ratings—high, moderate, and low—describe our confidence that a given study’s finding is due to the program. We assign the study quality rating based on our assessment of its quality. For studies that include multiple findings, we assess study quality for each finding. The study quality rating is the highest rating assigned to any of the findings. In the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse, study quality ratings only apply to randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental design studies.

• High. The quality of the study is high, meaning we can be fairly confident in the study findings. The study finding is likely to be attributable to the program examined. This rating is reserved for findings from high quality randomized controlled trials with low attrition of sample members.
• Moderate. The quality of the study is moderate, meaning we can be somewhat confident in the study findings. However, factors other than the program examined could have influenced the study findings, and the study might not have fully accounted for those factors. We assign this rating to findings from randomized controlled trial studies that, because of flaws in the study (for example, high sample attrition), do not meet the criteria for the high rating but satisfy other design criteria. We also assign the moderate rating to study findings from well-executed quasi-experimental design studies.
• Low. The quality of the study is low, meaning we cannot have much confidence in the study findings. Factors other than the program examined could have influenced the study findings, and the study did not account for those factors. Study findings that do not meet the high or moderate ratings criteria receive the low rating.

More information about study quality ratings is available in the Protocol for the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse.

A subset of individuals examined in a study who share a particular characteristic (for example, single parents or women).

Temporary or short-term employment in which a worker’s wages are partially or fully paid for by an external funder (not the employer). Those engaged in subsidized employment or transitional jobs may have little to no recent work experience or history and may use the subsidized experience to learn basic employment skills. Employers may choose to hire workers at the end of their subsidized employment.

A condition that affects a person's ability to control the use of substances such as legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications despite their harmful consequences.

Pathways to Work describes studies as having been conducted in suburban only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in a suburban location or in multiple locations, all of which were suburban. This typically means that they were conducted in communities with moderate population density, such as large towns or neighborhoods outside of cities, where residential areas are typically separate from commercial areas. Programs are listed as having been tested in suburban only settings if at least one study of the program was in a suburban only setting.

SNAP, the largest of the domestic nutrition assistance programs administered by the Food and Nutrition Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, provides food assistance to individuals and households in need. The assistance is provided through electronic benefit cards participants can use to purchase food. Most individuals whose income and resources fall below certain federally-determined thresholds are eligible for SNAP.

We have some evidence that the program produces favorable results for a given outcome. Supported programs have at least one study of moderate or high quality that shows evidence of statistically significant and favorable findings within the outcome, but the evidence is less conclusive than that for well-supported programs.

In-kind assistance often provided to address participants’ barriers to employment or program participation.

TANF provides federal grant funds to states to provide families with children (including pregnant women) or individual children whose incomes falls below a certain threshold with time-limited financial assistance and related supports, such as childcare assistance and job preparation services. Each state determines the type and amount of assistance, other supports, and eligibility requirements. TANF replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) in 1996. Unlike AFDC, TANF requires adults who are able to work to participate in work or training activities and limits families with adult recipients to no more than five years of benefits.

Pathways to Work describes studies as having been conducted in multiple settings if the study authors do not describe the study as having been conducted in communities that were exclusively rural, exclusively suburban, or exclusively urban. In other words, when study authors do not specify the study as having been implemented in a specific type of setting, then Pathways to Work classifies the study as tested in multiple settings. For example, a program may be tested across multiple counties or an entire state, which include different types of communities.

WIC provides federal grants to states for supplemental foods, health care referrals, and nutrition education for pregnant, breastfeeding, and non-breastfeeding postpartum women, and to infants and children up to age five determined to be at "nutritional risk" by a health professional. To be eligible, applicants' gross income must fall at or below 185 percent of the U.S. Poverty Income Guidelines, though states may set lower income eligibility limits.

Cash or like-cash financial assistance with transportation costs to work, school, training, or program activities. May include gas cards, public transportation cards, tokens, parking vouchers, or credits or reimbursement for ride-sharing services.

Inpatient or outpatient services to treat substance use disorder and/or provide supports for recovery. Services may include referrals to medication assisted treatment, counseling, peer recovery coaching, and residential treatment.

Financial contributions or assistance towards the costs of attending education or training courses. Can be provided in advance or reimbursed after courses have been completed.

Monetary support that provides a pre-established payment, usually in the form of cash, with no conditions for receiving the payment and no expectations attached for how the money is to be used.

People who do not have a paid job and who are either actively seeking employment or not in the labor force.

Work that is unpaid, such as community service jobs. May be used for participants who have limited to no work history. Often short-term, these placements are typically designed to orient participants to entry-level occupations and to provide exposure to workplace culture.

Pathways to Work describes studies as having been conducted in urban only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in an urban location or in multiple locations, all of which were urban. This typically means that they were conducted in cities or adjacent areas with high population density and where residential and commercial buildings are adjacent to one another. Programs are listed as having been tested in urban only settings if at least one study of the program was in an urban only setting.

Costs that vary proportionally with the number of program participants (e.g., the costs of individual participant workbooks) or the number of sites implementing the program.

For the purposes of reviews conducted by Pathways to Work, very long-term refers to a period lasting five years or more after participants are first offered services.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits or the value of their benefits more than 5 years after participants are offered program services.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment more than 5 years after the participant first received program services.

An increase in the rate of employment more than 5 years after the participant first received program services.

We have strong and consistent evidence that the program produces favorable results for a specific outcome, such as short-term earnings. Well-supported programs have at least two impact studies of moderate or high quality that show evidence of statistically significant and favorable findings within the outcome.

Paid or unpaid work or learning experiences that occur in a work setting.

In-kind supports needed for program participants to participate in training or work. These supports can include—but are not limited to—uniforms, laptops, tools, and other equipment.

People who are ages 16 to 24.