The sequence of required activities began with a two-week job search workshop. Next, participants completed three months of unpaid work experience (typically 20 to 30 hours per week) with concurrent job club sessions every other week, followed by assessments and referrals to outside education or training programs, if necessary. Part-time employment could substitute for some SWIM activities. People were placed in SWIM if they were applying for or receiving AFDC benefits from participating AFDC offices and met criteria for required participation. Participation was required if the applicant was a head of a two-parent household or a single head of household with children age 6 or older, unless the applicant was already employed at least 20 hours per week or was an undocumented parent of a U.S. citizen. SWIM was implemented in two AFDC offices in San Diego, CA.
- 0.14,1.50
- 0.11,5.00
- 0.15,1.50
Summary
The San Diego Saturation Work Initiative Model (SWIM) was a program for recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), who were required to participate in a series of activities designed to help them find work.
Effectiveness rating and effect by outcome domain
View table definitionsScroll to the right to view the rest of the table columns
| Outcome domain | Term | Effectiveness rating | Effect in 2024 dollars and percentages | Effect in standard deviations | Sample size |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Increase earnings | Short-term | 
|
$0 per year | 0.000 | 0 |
| Long-term |
|
$146 per year
|
0.004 | 4550 | |
| Very long-term |  |
||||
| Increase employment | Short-term | 
|
6% (in percentage points)
|
0.152 | 4550 |
| Long-term |
|
1% (in percentage points)
|
0.018 | 4550 | |
| Very long-term | |
||||
| Decrease benefit receipt | Short-term |
|
$-478 per year
|
-0.139 | 4550 |
| Long-term |
|
$-371 per year
|
-0.108 | 4550 | |
| Very long-term |
|
$-41 per year
|
-0.012 | 4550 | |
| Increase education and training | All measurement periods | |
Studies of this program
| Study quality rating | Study counts per rating |
|---|---|
 High
|
2 |
Program cost
No cost information available.
Cost results
| Estimates (in 2024 dollars) | Quality of cost analyses that produced the estimates | |
|---|---|---|
| Total program cost, per participant | $2,040–$2,234 |
Interpret cost findings with caution
|
| Net benefit to participants, per participant | -$1,440–$306 |
Interpret cost findings with caution
|
Cost information
How much did the program cost per participant?
The average total cost per participant ranged from $2,040 to $2,234 in 2024 dollars. This figure is based on cost information reported in two cost studies reviewed by Pathways to Work (for details, see the FAQ). The SWIM studies separately analyzed two groups of participants: single-parent families ($2,040 per participant) and two-parent families ($2,234 per participant). These studies all received a rating of Interpret cost findings with caution for the cost analysis.
How much did the program cost relative to the benefits it generated?
A cost-benefit analysis was conducted in the cost studies reviewed, with all studies receiving a rating of Interpret cost findings with caution. The net benefit to participants ranged from -$1,440 per participant for single-parent families to $306 per participant in two-parent families in 2024 dollars. This means that the net program benefit to participants (difference in benefits between the program and comparison group) ranged from $1,440 less than the net cost of the program to participants in single-parent families to $306 more than the net cost of the program to participants in two-parent families. The estimate is expressed as the net present value, which accounts for differences in the timing of when benefits and costs occurred. In addition, the net benefit to government ranged from $2,885 per participant in single-parent families to $2,996 per participant in two-parent families in 2024 dollars. The net benefit to society ranged from $3,314 per participant in single-parent families to $3,365 per participant in two-parent families in 2024 dollars. The net benefit to taxpayers ranged from $3,060 per participant in two-parent families to $3,314 per participant in single-parent families in 2024 dollars.
Cost information is not directly comparable across programs due to differences in the categories of costs reported and program length. Cost information is not an official price tag or guarantee.
Implementation details
Dates covered by study
SWIM provided services from July 1985 to September 1987. Random assignment occurred between July 1985 and June 1986. The study measured impacts for five years after study enrollment.
Organizations implementing program
Two urban AFDC offices in San Diego County, CA, implemented the SWIM program.
Populations served
SWIM served heads of household applying for or receiving AFDC who were from two-parent families or from single-parent families with children older than age 6; participation was mandatory. AFDC recipients were excused from the sequence of SWIM activities if they were employed or in a qualifying education and training activity at least 20 hours per week or if they were an undocumented parent of a U.S. citizen.
Among the heads of households in single-parent families, more than half (56 percent) had a high school diploma. Forty-two percent were Black, not Hispanic; 27 percent were White, not Hispanic; 26 percent were Hispanic or Latino of any race; and 5 percent were Asian or another ethnicity. Most of the heads of households in single-parent families were female.
Among the heads of households in two-parent families, 47 percent had a high school diploma. Forty percent were Hispanic or Latino of any race; 26 percent were White, not Hispanic; 21 percent were Black, not Hispanic; and 13 percent were Asian or another ethnicity. Most of the heads of households in two-parent families were male.
Description of services implemented
SWIM was a three-stage sequence of employment and training activities that supported participants’ job search, provided unpaid work experience, and included referrals to education and training.
SWIM’s stages included the following:
- Stage One. Participants were first assigned to a job search workshop for two weeks. Workshops were available in English and Spanish and included sessions on writing resumes, identifying potential jobs, and preparing for interviews. During the second week, English-speaking participants called prospective employers, and Spanish-speaking participants made in-person contact with prospective employers.
- Stage Two. Participants unemployed at the end of Stage One received unpaid work assignments through the Community Work Experience Program (CWEP) for 20 to 30 hours per week for 3 months. Participants were also required to attend a job club every other week.
- Stage Three. Participants unemployed at the end of Stage Two were referred to community-based education and training programs. Acceptable education and training activities included basic education, college courses, and vocational training courses.
If participants did not comply with the program activities, SWIM partially and temporarily sanctioned their AFDC grant.
During the study follow-up period, California implemented a statewide, mandatory Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training program called Greater Avenues for Independence (GAIN). GAIN services replaced SWIM services. GAIN was similar to SWIM but emphasized education and training during AFDC participation instead of after other employment activities. Program group participants became eligible for GAIN in October 1987, and comparison group participants became eligible for GAIN in July 1988.
Service intensity
Seventy percent of the single-parent and two-parent family program groups participated in an program activity between July 1985 and June 1988.
Stage One job search workshops lasted for 2 weeks or 10 days. Fifty-four percent of participants from the single-parent family program group and 60 percent of participants from the two-parent family program group participated in job search workshops between July 1985 and June 1988. Of those who participated, more than 75 percent attended all 10 days of the workshops.
Stage Two job clubs occurred every other week for three months, and participants attended four clubs, on average. Participants assigned to 3 months of unpaid work experience worked about 25 full-time days, on average. Twenty-one percent of the single-parent and two-parent family program groups participated in unpaid work experience between July 1985 and June 1988.
In Stage Three, between 30 and 40 percent of families in the program group participated in education or training activities and enrolled for an average of about 200 days between July 1985 and June 1988.
Comparison conditions
Individuals randomly assigned to the comparison group did not receive any SWIM services and were not subject to SWIM requirements but could enroll in community education and training programs on their own. Starting in July 1988, individuals in the comparison group became subject to the GAIN program, which replaced SWIM but was largely similar.
Partnerships
The CWEP facilitated Stage Two unpaid work assignments.
The San Diego Community College system and other local providers provided education and training activities in Stage Three.
Staffing
The study authors did not include information on the number of staff or their training, degrees, or certifications.
Fidelity measures
The study did not discuss any tools to measure fidelity to the program model.
Funding source
The California State Department of Social Services and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services funded the program.
State(s) where implemented
Pathways to Work refers to programs by the names used in study reports or manuscripts. Some program names may use language that is not consistent with our style guide, preferences, or the terminology we use to describe populations.